September 18, 2024

The Council of Constantinople, in Context

by Dick Fichter, parishioner with input from Rev. Dina

Fragment of a fifth-century papyrus codex containing the Nicene Creed. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society. Photographer: Daniela Colomo.

My earlier caveat with respect to oversimplification of the issues and activities and with respect to quotes from Britannica equally apply here.

Substantial Issues Remain After the First Council of NicaeaThe history from the First Council of Nicaea in 325 did not provide the clarification I had looked for to better understand what I understood as its Creed with respect to its meaning regarding the Holy Spirit. We then looked at reports on the issues considered and resolved by the Council of Constantinople meeting at about 381 which was about 56 years after the Council of Nicaea. I then recalled that the Nicene Creed was the short, adopted name for the Nicene-Constantinople Creed. During the intervening 56 years between councils, much had taken place, On February 27, 380, the Roman Empire officially adopted Trinitarian Nicene Christianity as its state religion. Prior to this date, Constantius II (337-361) and Valens (364-378) had personally favored Arian or Semi-Arianism forms of Christianity, but Valens’ successor Theodosius I supported the Trinitarian doctrine as expounded in the creed issued by the council of Nicaea.

Can you imagine how much might have changed in the course of 56 years?!

The Effort for Preeminence

The acceptance of this creed by most participants of the council did not put an end to debates over the same issues and about various different teachings within Christianity from a theological as well as a political perspective within the various churches or sects. [It has been my experience that they are inextricably linked, even today]. This was true especially among the major bishops and cities within the empire. There was tension to establish each’s preeminence among the Eastern and Western churches, theologies, bishops and cities.

The Next Council

This led to another council which was held in AD 381 in the City of Constantinople which by this time many considered Constantinople the new Rome for the Roman empire.  It was attended by 150 Catholic and 36 heretical (Semi-Arian, Macedonian) bishops, and was presided over by Meletius of Antioch; after his death, by the successive Patriarchs of Constantinople, St. Gregory Nazianzen and Nectarius. This council essentially revised the creed from AD 325 – with the AD 381 version being what is often called the Nicene Creed and recited in churches (it is easier to say Nicene Creed than Nicene-Constantinople Creed!). There were some minor changes to the wording about Jesus. However, the key addition to this creed being its discussion of the Holy Spirit. This issue arose because of substantial theological debates at the time about the Holy Spirit.

The 325 form of the creed, like the Apostles’ Creed, simply said, “I believe in the Holy Spirit.” The 381 version, however, says: “And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.” Thus, the Apostles’ and 325 Nicene Creeds affirm the centrality of belief in the Holy Spirit and a triune God, the 381 Nicene-Constantinople articulates some important elements to know and believe about the Holy Spirit and these proved to be very controversial and divisive. 

The Importance of Context

In considering controversial issues, I have learned the importance of context in making a judgement about the validity of the decision concerning the subject issues. This is particularly true of historical issues where I tend to make an initial judgement based on my education, beliefs and experiences in contemporary society which is always based on the foundations established by earlier societal generations. I often take this basis for granted and use it as a basis for judgment; do you? Many times, this initial judgement proves to be wrong, at least partially wrong or unfair when I consider and fully understand the context of the issue at the time of the historical decision. In this regard, I have been taught and believe that there is only one God and in the Trinity. It was not until the analysis of, “… proceeds from…” that I began to appreciate the significance of the issue with respect to the Holy Ghost at the time of the councils.

The Christian faith is based on the life and resurrection of Jesus Christ and the fulfillment of the prophecies of the Old Testament which is based on three scriptural texts. The Shema, (Hebrew: “Hear”), the Jewish confession of faith, in part, was made up of three scripts of the texts (Deuteronomy 6:4–9, 11:13–21; Numbers 15:37–41), which, together with appropriate prayers, forms an integral part of the evening and morning services. The name derives from the initial word of the scriptural verse “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord” (Deuteronomy 6:4). This monotheistic tenant became integral to the Christian faith from the Jewish faith and tradition carried forward into Christianity. This was in contrast to other contemporary beliefs in Greek and Roman pagan gods; of which there were hundreds.   

The sole requirements for the Greeks were to believe that the gods existed and to perform ritual and sacrifice, through which the gods received their due. To deny the existence of a deity was to risk reprisals, from the deity or from other mortals. The list of avowed atheists is brief. But if a Greek went through the motions of piety, he risked little, since no attempt was made to enforce orthodoxy, a religious concept which was said to be almost incomprehensible to the Greeks.

The Romans, according to the orator and politician Cicero, excelled all other peoples in the unique wisdom that made them realize that everything is subordinate to the rule and direction of the gods. Yet Roman religion was based not on divine grace but instead on mutual trust (fides) between god and man. The object of Roman religion was to secure the cooperation, benevolence, and “peace” of the gods (pax deorum). The Romans believed that this divine help would make it possible for them to master the unknown forces around them that inspired awe and anxiety (religio), and thus they would be able to live successfully. Consequently, there arose a body of rules, the jus divinum (“divine law”), ordaining what had to be done or avoided

The above provides some idea of the background of beliefs of those educated enough to have access to the scriptures to consider the conflicting issues involved in interpreting the Bible at that time. It has been said with some certainty that the first widespread edition of the Bible was assembled by St. Jerome around A.D. 400. This manuscript included all 39 books of the Old Testament and the 27 books of the New Testament in the same language: Latin. It seems reasonable that such manuscripts were available at the time of the councils.

Thank you to everyone who participated in this year’s mid-year check-in to hear about how we are doing at Epiphany!

God Loves You. No Exceptions.